My History | Melanesian Ancestry

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My History explores recent DNA revelations concerning Black Sovereign's genetic past.

Black Sovereign's DNA Test Results

[one_third]

AFRICA (86%)

• Nigeria - 57%


• Mali - 17%


• Southeastern Bantu - 3%


• Senegal - 3%


• South-Central Hunter-Gatherers - 3%


• Cameroon - 1%


• Benin - less than 1%


• Ghana - less than 1%

[/one_third][one_third]

EUROPE (13%)

• Britain - 6%


• Europe West - 5%


• Italy - less than 1%


• Iberian Peninsula - less than 1%

[/one_third][one_third_last]

PACIFIC ISLANDER (< 1%)

• Melanesia - less than 1%

[/one_third_last]

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Melanesia

Primarily located in: Papua New Guinea, Bougainville, Fiji, Aboriginal Australia

Also found in: Solomon Islands, New Caledonia

Including the continent of Australia, New Guinea and the island chains of the Bismarck and Solomon Archipelagos, the Melanesian region is home to some of the worlds' best-preserved primitive societies. The ancient populations of Melanesia remained mostly separated from the rest of the world for tens of thousands of years. A combination of geographical isolation, rugged terrain and few crops and animals suitable for domestication led to the perpetuation of ancient technology and culture.

How Black Sovereign compares to the typical person native to the Melanesia region

[infopane color="1" icon="0101.png"]Black Sovereign : <1% ... ... ... Typical native : 100%[/infopane]

 

Genetic Diversity in the Melanesia Region

The people living in the Melanesia region are less admixed than most other regions, which means that when creating genetic ethnicity estimates for people native to this area, we rarely see even small amounts of similarities to DNA profiles from other nearby regions. We’ve found that approximately 100% of the typical native’s DNA comes from this region.

We have used our reference panel to build a genetic profile for Melanesia. The blue chart above shows examples of ethnicity estimates for people from this region. For Melanesia, we see a very narrow range—most people have very little (if any) DNA shared with neighboring regions. However, there are some exceptions—a small minority of people have DNA showing only 81% similarity to this profile. In addition, about 43% of individuals from this region have at least some DNA similar to the Polynesia region. (See chart above, in green.)

Population History

The first settlers

The Melanesia region includes Papua New Guinea, Australia and the island chains to the east including Vanuatu, New Caledonia and Fiji. The word “Melanesian” is more of a geographical name than a description of an ethnic group, so its meaning in this context is somewhat vague. But, in general, the indigenous population of the region can be broken down into pre-Austronesian (including Papuans and Aboriginal Australians) and Austronesian.

The Melanesia region

As early as 50,000 years ago, the first modern humans made the narrow sea crossing from Southeast Asia to the Melanesia region after following the southern coastal route out of Africa. About 25,000 years ago, at the height of the last glacial period, Australia, Tasmania and Papua New Guinea were part of the same landmass, called Sahul. They were separated about 10,000 years ago, when melting glaciers caused the sea level to rise.

Papua New Guinea is one of the few places in the world where agriculture was developed locally, rather than being imported from elsewhere. But the wild plants available to the indigenous inhabitants did not lend themselves to intense cultivation. The main crop grown by the Papuans, prior to the arrival of sweet potatoes, was taro. Papua New Guinea is also home to more than 850 distinct languages, making it one of the most diverse countries in the world. Australia also once had hundreds of unique indigenous languages, particularly in the tropical northern regions, although most are now extinct.

Rainforest settlement in New Guinea

Although the Aboriginal Australians aren't technically considered Melanesian, the groups that initially populated Papua New Guinea and Australia probably arrived from Southeast Asia at roughly the same time. There was some interaction among the Melanesians, Australians and other islanders in the area, but the Aboriginal Australians did not adopt agriculture to the same extent as most other Melanesians (possibly due to their harsher climate). With the exception of some tribes along the coast that relied more heavily on fishing, most Aboriginal tribes remained semi-nomadic hunter-gatherers until the arrival of Europeans in the 17th and 18th centuries.

Austronesian influence

A second wave of settlers, the Austronesians, arrived much later, around 3,500 to 3,000 years ago. Most scholars believe that their homeland was the island of Formosa, or modern-day Taiwan, off the east coast of China. Accomplished sailors, the Neolithic Austronesians settled the north coast of Papua New Guinea and the Bismarck and Solomon Islands, bringing domesticated chickens, pigs and a few additional crops. They are probably the ancestors of the Lapita culture, which reached as far east as Tonga, most likely giving rise to the Polynesian culture that spread throughout the Pacific Ocean.

Additional genetic facts about the Melanesia region

The Denisovans were “archaic humans,” similar to the Neanderthals, who lived in Siberia and Asia more than 40,000 years ago. There was a significant amount of interbreeding among Denisovans, Neanderthals and modern humans. In fact, it is possible that all non-African humans possess a small percentage of Neanderthal DNA. Similarly, Denisovans may have interbred with modern humans, but the Melanesians and Aboriginal Australians may be among the only existing populations to possess Denisovan DNA. The ultimate fate of the Denisovans is unknown. It is possible that they were killed off by modern humans, or that they were outcompeted and assimilated.

Among the interesting characteristics of Melanesian and Aboriginal Australian populations is the evolution of blond hair, which is believed to have developed independently of the blond hair seen in Europeans.

Blond Vanuatu boy, photo by Graham Crumb

Did You Know?

There are possibly more than 40 tribes in the mountains of Papua New Guinea that have never been contacted by modern society.

Tribesmen in New Guinea, 1919

My History | Iberian Peninsula Ancestry

[infopane color="6" icon="0182.png"]

My History explores recent DNA revelations concerning Black Sovereign's genetic past.

Black Sovereign's DNA Test Results

[one_third]

AFRICA (86%)

• Nigeria - 57%


• Mali - 17%


• Southeastern Bantu - 3%


• Senegal - 3%


• South-Central Hunter-Gatherers - 3%


• Cameroon - 1%


• Benin - less than 1%


• Ghana - less than 1%

[/one_third][one_third]

EUROPE (13%)

• Britain - 6%


• Europe West - 5%


• Italy - less than 1%


• Iberian Peninsula - less than 1%

[/one_third][one_third_last]

PACIFIC ISLANDER (< 1%)

• Melanesia - less than 1%

[/one_third_last]

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Iberian Peninsula

Primarily located in: Spain, Portugal

Also found in: France, Morocco, Algeria, Italy

Separated from the rest of continental Europe by the Pyrenees Mountains, the Iberian Peninsula lies between the Mediterranean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean. Gibraltar, at the peninsula’s southern tip, is just a little over nine miles from the north coast of Africa. This proximity would play a major part in the history and identity of Spain and Portugal.

How Black Sovereign compares to the typical person native to the Iberian Peninsula region

[infopane color="1" icon="0101.png"]Black Sovereign : <1% ... ... ... Typical native : 51%[/infopane]

 

Genetic Diversity in the Iberian Peninsula Region

The people living in the Iberian Peninsula region are fairly admixed, which means that when creating genetic ethnicity estimates for people native to this area, we see similarities to DNA profiles from other nearby regions. We’ve found that approximately 51% of the typical native’s DNA comes from this region.

We have used our reference panel to build a genetic profile for the Iberian Peninsula. The blue chart above shows examples of ethnicity estimates for people native to this region. For the Iberian Peninsula, we see a fairly wide range of results. Some natives have only 19% of their DNA showing similarity to this profile, while there is a larger group which shows 100% similarity. Since approximately 51% of the typical native’s DNA comes from this region, 49% is more similar to surrounding areas such as the Italy/Greece region (see chart above, in green).

Population History

People of prehistoric Iberia

The Iberian Peninsula has been inhabited for more than a million years, from the Paleolithic Cro-Magnon and Neanderthals to modern Homo sapiens. A number of Iberian civilizations had developed by the Bronze Age and were trading with other Mediterranean communities. Celtic tribes arrived from central Europe and settled in the northern and western parts of the peninsula, intermixing with the local populations. Phoenician colonies (later controlled by the powerful Carthaginians) dotted the Mediterranean coast. The Greeks named the region “Iberia,” after the Ebro River.

Iberian Peninsula

Romanization

The Carthaginians were the naval superpower of their day, controlling most of the maritime trade in the western Mediterranean. They ran afoul of the growing Roman Empire in the 3rd century B.C., however. Local disputes between city-states in Sicily escalated into a broader conflict between the two empires, triggering the Punic Wars (264 B.C. to 146 B.C.).

Iberia was a major source of manpower and revenue for the Carthaginian military, which relied heavily on mercenary soldiers. The great Carthaginian general, Hannibal, led the Iberian forces in a surprise assault on northern Italy—and even Rome itself—by marching his armies, including several dozen war elephants, over the Alps. Although Hannibal was a brilliant strategist and won several victories against the Romans, his invasion ultimately failed. He was forced to retreat to Carthage, and the Iberian colonies and territories that had been controlled by Carthage then became a province of the Roman Empire, known as Hispania.

Hannibal's Elephants by French artist Nicolas Poussin

Rome launched a number of campaigns to conquer the remainder of the peninsula, bringing most of the region under Roman rule. Latin replaced almost all of the locally spoken languages and eventually evolved into modern Spanish and Portuguese. One exception is the Basque language, which survived in the remote foothills of the Pyrenees. Many scholars believe Basque pre-dates the arrival of the Indo-European languages, brought by the Celtic and Iberian tribes during the Bronze Age.

Germanic Visigoth kingdom

The Migration Period, or Völkerwanderung, was a vast movement of primarily Germanic tribes throughout Europe, beginning around 400 A.D. These wandering tribes completely transformed central and western Europe, conquering and displacing populations over the course of centuries. The Roman Empire had already been divided into two parts, with the emperor ruling from the new eastern capital in Byzantium. The Western Empire, including Rome itself, was overrun by successive waves of Germanic invaders, including the Visigoths and the Vandals. The Visigoths continued west from Italy and established the Visigoth Kingdom, which occupied the majority of the Iberian Peninsula. They converted to Catholicism around 589 A.D. and were completely assimilated by the indigenous Hispano-Roman population, as evidenced by the loss of the Gothic language and a lack of any substantial genetic difference between the groups.

Visigoth Kingdom, 600 A.D.

Islamic rule

North Africa remained part of the Roman and Byzantine Empires for centuries after the defeat of Carthage. But in the late 7th century, the region was conquered by the Umayyad Caliphate, a vast Muslim empire based in Syria. The North African Muslims consisted mostly of indigenous Berbers and an Arab minority, collectively called "Moors" by the Europeans.

In 711 A.D., the Moors crossed the Strait of Gibraltar and conquered the Visigoth Kingdom and most of Iberia, forcing the Christian Visigoths to retreat to the northern part of the peninsula. Iberia became a province of the Umayyad Caliphate called Al-Andalus. While many converted to Islam and adopted the Arabic language, the majority of the population remained Christian and spoke Latin.

Illustration of Tariq ibn Ziyad, a Muslim general who led the Islamic conquest of Visigothic Hispania in 711-718 A.D. He is considered to be one of the most important millitary commanders in Iberian history.

The duration of Muslim rule varied, lasting only a few decades in the north and nearly 800 years in the south. Al-Andalus broke away from the Caliphate after the overthrow of the Umayyads in Syria and became an independent emirate ruled by a succession of Muslim dynasties. From 722 to 1492, the Christian kingdoms of the north relentlessly fought to regain control of the peninsula in a campaign called “the Reconquista” (or re-conquest), but they made limited headway until the 13th century. By then, Muslim rule had fractured into a number of smaller, competing emirates, which made them more vulnerable.

Age of discovery

In 1469, the Christian Kingdoms of Leon, Castile, and Aragon were brought together by the marriage of Queen Isabella and King Ferdinand II. Although the thrones technically remained separate, their royal union created a new political entity, España, laying the foundation for the modern Kingdom of Spain. Portugal was also established as a distinct country at this time, and the boundaries between the two nations have remained virtually unchanged since then.

The year 1492 was especially busy for Ferdinand and Isabella. They issued the “Alhambra Decree,” which expelled all Jews from Spain, scattering them throughout the Mediterranean, Europe and the Middle East. They also defeated the last Muslim stronghold at Grenada, bringing an end to the Reconquista. In addition, Ferdinand and Isabella financed the first voyage of Christopher Columbus to the New World, beginning a period of exploration, colonization and exploitation of the Americas. Called the Age of Discovery, it led to immense wealth and power for Spain, as they became an unmatched maritime power and extracted gold, silver and other resources from their colonies across the Atlantic. To this day, Spanish remains the second most widely spoken language in the world. Portugal kept pace with its neighbors, establishing the first trade route around the southern tip of Africa, as well as numerous colonies, including Brazil.

Columbus Before the Queen by Emanuel Gottileb Leutze

Did You Know?

The Portuguese explorer, Bartholomew Dias, was the first European to sail around the southern tip of Africa. He named it the "Cape of Storms," but it is now called the Cape of Good Hope.

My History | Italian Ancestry

[infopane color="6" icon="0182.png"]

My History explores recent DNA revelations concerning Black Sovereign's genetic past.

Black Sovereign's DNA Test Results

[one_third]

AFRICA (86%)

• Nigeria - 57%


• Mali - 17%


• Southeastern Bantu - 3%


• Senegal - 3%


• South-Central Hunter-Gatherers - 3%


• Cameroon - 1%


• Benin - less than 1%


• Ghana - less than 1%

[/one_third][one_third]

EUROPE (13%)

• Britain - 6%


• Europe West - 5%


• Italy - less than 1%


• Iberian Peninsula - less than 1%

[/one_third][one_third_last]

PACIFIC ISLANDER (< 1%)

• Melanesia - less than 1%

[/one_third_last]

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Italy/Greece

Primarily located in: Italy, Greece

Also found in: France, Switzerland, Portugal, Spain, Serbia, Hungary, Bulgaria, Austria, Croatia, Bosnia, Romania, Turkey, Slovenia, Algeria, Tunisia, Montenegro, Albania, Macedonia, Kosovo

Located in the south of Europe, against the Mediterranean Sea, this region gave rise to some of the most iconic and powerful cultures the Western world has known. The Greeks were first, with their pantheon of gods, legendary heroes, philosophers and artists. They subsequently influenced the Romans, whose vast empire spread its ideas and language across Europe.

How Black Sovereign compares to the typical person native to the Italy/Greece region

[infopane color="1" icon="0101.png"]Black Sovereign : <1% ... ... ... Typical native : 72%[/infopane]

 

Genetic Diversity in the Italy/Greece Region

The people living in the Italy/Greece region are admixed, which means that when creating genetic ethnicity estimates for individuals native to this area, we frequently see some similarities to DNA profiles from other nearby regions. We’ve found that approximately 72% of the typical native’s DNA comes from this region.

We have used our reference panel to build a genetic profile for Italy/Greece. The blue chart above shows examples of ethnicity estimates for people native to this region. Most Italy/Greece natives have between 65% and 100% of their DNA showing similarity to this profile. It’s also possible, however, to find people whose DNA shows very little similarity. Since approximately 72% of the typical native’s DNA comes from this region, 28% of his or her DNA is more similar to other regions, such as the Caucasus, Middle East, Iberian Peninsula, and Europe West.

Population History

Prehistoric Italy/Greece

The history of this region is dominated by two titans: the Greeks and the Romans. During the height of the Classical Era, the Greeks introduced cultural, civic and philosophical ideas and innovations that heavily influenced the Roman Empire and, in turn, laid the foundations of Western civilization.

Ancient Greece was settled by four different Greek-speaking groups. During the Bronze Age, Mycenaean Greece of Homer's epics consisted of the Achaeans, Aeolians and Ionians. It was one of the great powers of its time. The remaining group, the Dorians, rose to prominence around 1100 B.C. when the Mycenaean civilization collapsed. The influence of these groups spread beyond mainland Greece to the western coastline of modern Turkey and the islands of the Aegean Sea.

Distribution of ancient Greek tribes

Achaean/Arcadian (red)

Dorian (blue)

Aeolian (green)

Ionian (yellow)

The Greeks also founded colonies in southern Italy and Sicily. Called Magna Graecia in Latin, these settlements existed alongside the native tribes of the Italian peninsula, including the Etruscans, Umbrians and Latins. The Latins would later build their capital in Rome, drawing heavily on the culture of their Greek neighbors.

Colonies of Italy/Greece

Besides Sicily and southern Italy, the Greeks established many more colonies around the Mediterranean, from approximately 750 B.C. until 500 B.C. Established as small city-states, most of these colonies were trading outposts. Others were created by refugees when Greek cities were overrun and the displaced inhabitants looked for new land. More than 90 Greek colonies were established, from Ukraine and Russia to the north, Turkey to the east, southern Spain in the west, and Egypt and Libya in the south.

The Classical Age of Greece began around the 5th century B.C. It was the era of Athens, Sparta, the birth of democracy, and many of Greece’s famous playwrights and philosophers. After two bloody wars with the Persian Empire, Athens and Sparta went to war with each other, leading to the eventual decline of both. The Macedonian king, Philip II, united the Greek city-states in 338 B.C. After Philip’s assassination, his son, Alexander the Great, became king of Macedonia and carried out his father’s plans to invade Persia. Alexander led his armies in conquest of the Middle East, part of India, and Egypt, spreading the Greek language and culture throughout much of the ancient world.

Phillip II, king of Macedonia. The Granger Collection, New York.

Alexander the Great. Detail of The Alexander Mosaic.

His triumph was short-lived, however; he died on his campaign and his conquered territories were divided among his generals. But many important Greek cities and colonies were established and remained under Greek rule, including Seleucia, Antioch and Alexandria.

While Greece spread its influence eastward, the small city of Rome was growing into a regional power in Italy. As the Roman Republic expanded, it established colonies of Roman citizens to maintain control of newly conquered lands. By the time Julius Caesar seized power from the Senate, the Roman war machine was nearly unstoppable. Soldiers who served for years in the military were rewarded with land in Roman colonies throughout the empire, which stretched from Turkey and the Middle East to Spain and northern France.

Invasion of the barbarians

During the late Roman Empire, Constantine the Great established Constantinople as the eastern capital of the Roman Empire. The Empire was divided and, as the focus of power shifted away from Rome, the Western Empire was left vulnerable to a series of invasions by Goths, Huns, Visigoths and Heruli. In 476 B.C. a Germanic soldier, Odoacer, deposed the last Western Roman emperor, Romulus Augustulus, signaling the fall of the old Roman Empire. The Eastern Empire continued to flourish, becoming known as the Byzantine Empire. Odoacer was soon murdered by the Ostrogoth ruler Theodoric. Although the barbarians had seized Rome, they never established a major settlement in Italy.

Romulus Augustulus resigns the Crown before Odoacer. Project Gutenberg's Young Folks' History of Rome by Charlotte Mary Yonge.

From around 610 A.D. to 867 A.D., the Byzantine Empire was attacked by numerous groups, including the Persians, Lombards, Avars, Slavs, Arabs, Normans, Franks, Goths and Bulgars. During the 8th and 9th centuries, the empire slowly freed Greece from these invaders. The Slavs had the most success at establishing permanent settlements in Greece, although they, too, were eventually defeated and banished from the Greek peninsula.

During this time, Greek-speaking people from Sicily and Asia Minor migrated to Greece, and a large number of Sephardic Jews emigrated from Spain to Greece, as well.

Ottoman Empire

The Ottoman Empire conquered the Byzantine Empire, expanding through Greece and capturing Athens in 1458. Many of the Greek scholars fled and migrated to Christian Western Europe. Ottoman colonies were established in several areas in Greece, and held on until Greek independence was declared in 1821.

The Battle of Maniaki during the Greek War of Independence from the Ottoman Empire

Italy in the Middle Ages

During the 12th and 13th centuries, the city-states of Italy developed trading and banking institutions. They established a wealth of trading relationships with the Byzantine Empire and the Islamic powers, all around the Mediterranean. The escalation in trade lead to a resurgence of financial power in Italy, allowing it to create Italian colonies as far away as the Black Sea.

Did You Know?

Togas weren’t worn by everyone in ancient Rome. After the 2nd century B.C., only freeborn Roman men were allowed to wear them as a symbol of their citizenship.

The Greeks were the first to develop an alphabet with vowels and it has been used to write the Greek language since 800 B.C.

An inscription showing the Greek alphabet

My History | European West Ancestry

[infopane color="6" icon="0182.png"]

My History explores recent DNA revelations concerning Black Sovereign's genetic past.

Black Sovereign's DNA Test Results

[one_third]

AFRICA (86%)

• Nigeria - 57%


• Mali - 17%


• Southeastern Bantu - 3%


• Senegal - 3%


• South-Central Hunter-Gatherers - 3%


• Cameroon - 1%


• Benin - less than 1%


• Ghana - less than 1%

[/one_third][one_third]

EUROPE (13%)

• Britain - 6%


• Europe West - 5%


• Italy - less than 1%


• Iberian Peninsula - less than 1%

[/one_third][one_third_last]

PACIFIC ISLANDER (< 1%)

• Melanesia - less than 1%

[/one_third_last]

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Europe West

Primarily located in: Belgium, France, Germany, Netherlands, Switzerland, Luxembourg, Liechtenstein

Also found in: England, Denmark, Italy, Slovenia, Czech Republic

The Europe West region is a broad expanse stretching from Amsterdam's sea-level metropolis to the majestic peaks of the Alps. Geographically dominated by France in the west and Germany in the east, it includes several nations with distinct cultural identities. From the boisterous beer gardens of Munich to the sun-soaked vineyards of Bordeaux and the alpine dairy farms of Switzerland, it is a region of charming cultural diversity.

How Black Sovereign compares to the typical person native to the Europe West region

[infopane color="1" icon="0101.png"]Black Sovereign : 5% ... ... ... Typical native : 48%[/infopane]

 

Genetic Diversity in the Europe West Region

The people living in the Europe West region are among the most admixed of all our regions, which means that when creating genetic ethnicity estimates for people native to this area, we often see similarities to DNA profiles from other nearby regions. We’ve found that approximately 48% of the typical native’s DNA comes from this region.

We have used our reference panel to build a genetic profile for Europe West. The blue chart above shows examples of ethnicity estimates for people native to this region. For Europe West we see an extremely wide range—most natives have between 20% and 68% of their DNA showing similarity to this region's profile. Some individuals show 100% similarity, but it’s also possible to find people whose DNA shows little or no similarity. This is most likely due to the fact that this area has not experienced any long-term periods of isolation. Since only 48% of the typical native’s DNA comes from this region, there are major genetic influences from other regions, such as Great Britain, Scandinavia, Italy/Greece, Europe East and more (see chart above, in green).

Population History

Prehistoric Western Europe

Due to its location and geography, Western Europe has seen many successive waves of immigrants throughout its history. Both peaceful intermingling and violent invasions of newcomers have resulted in a greater diversity in the genetics of the population, compared with neighboring regions.

The first major migration into Western Europe is arguably the Neolithic expansion of farmers who came from the Middle East. From about 8,000 to 6,000 years ago these farmers filtered in through Turkey and brought with them wheat, cows and pigs. It is possible, too, that these people could have been the megalithic cultures who erected enormous stone monuments like the famous menhirs of Stonehenge. There were dozens, if not hundreds, of monuments scattered throughout prehistoric Europe, some serving as tombs, others possibly having astronomical significance.

Photograph of Stonehenge taken in July 1877 by Philip Rupert Acott. Owned by Tamsin Titcomb.

Celtic and Germanic tribes

Although “Celtic” is often associated with the people of Ireland and Scotland, the Celts emerged as a unique culture in central Europe more than 2,500 years ago. From an epicenter in what is now Austria, they spread and settled in the areas of today’s western Germany and eastern France, generally near the Rhine and Danube Rivers. By 450 B.C., their influence and Celtic languages had spread across most of western Europe, including the areas that are now France, the Iberian Peninsula and the British Isles. The Celts either conquered or assimilated the previous inhabitants of the area, and almost all languages and cultural and religious customs were replaced. The only exception, most scholars believe, is the Basque language, which managed to persist in the Pyrenees of southern France and northern Spain.

In the early 4th century B.C., Celtic tribes in northern Italy invaded and sacked Rome, setting the stage for centuries of conflict.

In the 5th century B.C., Germanic peoples began moving south, from Sweden, Denmark and northern Germany, displacing the Celts as they went. It is unclear what prompted their movement, but it may have been climate related, as they sought warmer weather and more fertile farmland. The Germanic tribes’ expansion was checked by the generals, Gaius Marius and Julius Caesar, as they approached the Roman provinces around 100 B.C.

This map shows the expansion of Celtic tribes by 275 A.D. (in light green) from their presumed origin, the Bronze Age Hallstatt culture (in yellow). Dark green areas show regions where Celtic languages are still spoken today.

The Romans

After Rome defeated Carthage in the Punic Wars, the Republic had extended its borders to include the entire Italian Peninsula, Carthage’s territories in North Africa, most of the Iberian Peninsula, Greece and parts of Anatolia. It began turning its attention northwest toward the Celtic-dominated region known as Gaul, which more or less covered the area of modern-day France. Part of Rome’s motivation was to secure its frontier, as conflict with the Celts was a chronic problem. Julius Caesar led the campaign to conquer Gaul. A Celtic chieftain, Vercingetorix, assembled a confederation of tribes and mounted a resistance, but was defeated at the Battle of Alesia in 52 B.C. The battle effectively ended Celtic resistance. The Gauls were absorbed into the Roman Republic and became thoroughly assimilated into Roman culture, adopting the language, customs, governance and religion of the Empire. Many generals and even emperors were born in Gaul or came from Gallic families.

Vercingetorix Throws Down His Arms at the Feet of Julius Caesar by Lionel Royer.

For the most part, by 400 A.D., Western Europe was split between the Roman Empire and the restless Germanic tribes to the northeast. Celtic culture and influence still held sway in parts of the British Isles, and the Basque language continued to survive in the Pyrenees. It is interesting to note that the Basque share genetic similarities to the Celts of Ireland and Scotland, despite being culturally and linguistically dissimilar and geographically separated. While the exact relationship of the groups is difficult to determine, this does highlight the interesting interplay between genetic origin and ethno-linguistic identity.

The Migration Period

By 400 A.D., the Roman Empire had been split into pieces. Rome was no longer the heart of the Empire, as the seat of power had been moved to Byzantium in the east. The Romans had begun to adopt Greek customs and language as well as Christianity, which had become the official state religion. Control of the provinces in the west had waned, and Rome itself was militarily weakened.

About this time, there was a period of intensified human migration throughout Europe, called the Migration Period, or the Völkerwanderung (“migration of peoples” in German). Many of the groups involved were Germanic tribes, whose expansion had previously been held in check by the Romans.

To some degree, the earlier Germanic tribes of the Migration Period, notably the Goths and Vandals, were being pushed west and south by invasions from the Middle East and Central Asia. The Huns swept across eastern Europe, followed by the Avars, Slavs, Bulgars and Alans. These successive attacks may have been a factor in several waves of population displacement and resettlement.

Seven large German-speaking tribes—the Visigoths, Ostrogoths, Vandals, Burgundians, Lombards, Saxons and Franks—began pressing aggressively west into the Roman provinces and, in 410, the Visigoths attacked and sacked Rome. The western part of the Roman Empire was rapidly overrun as the invaders swept in, eventually dividing the remainder of the Roman provinces into new, Germanic kingdoms.

An anachronistic 15th-century miniature depicting the sack of 410.

The Frankish Kingdom

The Franks conquered northern Gaul in 486 A.D. and established an empire under the Merovingian kings, subjugating many of the other Germanic tribes. Over the course of almost four centuries, a succession of Frankish kings, including Clovis, Clothar, Pepin and Charlemagne, led campaigns that greatly expanded Frankish control over Western Europe.

Charlemagne's kingdom covered almost all of France, most of today's Germany, Austria and northern Italy. On Christmas Day, 800, Pope Leo III crowned Charlemagne “Emperor of the Romans.” This upset the Byzantine emperor, who saw himself as the sole ruler of the Roman Empire, but by 812, he was forced to accept Charlemagne as co-emperor.

In 843, Charlemagne's grandsons divided the Frankish empire into three parts—one for each of them. Charles the Bald received the western portion, which later became France. Lothair received the central portion of the empire, called Middle Francia, which stretched from the North Sea to northern Italy. It included parts of eastern France, western Germany and the Low Countries. Louis the German received the eastern portion, which eventually became the high medieval Kingdom of Germany, the largest component of the Holy Roman Empire.

Statue of Charlemagne, by Agostino Cornacchini (1725). Located at St. Peter's Basilica, Vatican.

Division of the Frankish Empire Among Charlemagne's Grandsons, 843 A.D.

Charles the Bald (RED)

Lothair (YELLOW)

Louis the German (BLUE)

Additional cultures of note

In addition to the Basque in the area of the Pyrenees in southern France, there are a number of other cultures with unique ethnic or linguistic identities in Western Europe. Among them are the Normans of northern France. Descended from Viking settlers who arrived sometime during the rule of the Frankish kings, the Normans controlled a powerful region known as Normandy. Their territories were subject to the French crown, which countenanced them in exchange for protecting the northern coast against other Viking raids.

Just to the west of Normandy was Brittany, named after the Celtic Britons who arrived there from the British Isles in the 5th century. Some scholars believe that the migration may have been due to the Anglo-Saxon invasion of England after the collapse of the Western Roman Empire. Brittany resisted the Frankish kings and remained independent until 1532. It is one of the few places where Celtic languages are still spoken.

Basque-American girl

Celtic warrior

Did You Know?

Many people think that Henry Ford invented the modern automobile, but it was two German engineers, Karl Benz and Gottlieb Daimler, who each independently came up with the concept around the same time. Teaming up with a French partner, Emile Roger, Benz was selling cars in Germany and France by 1888.

My History | British Ancestry

[infopane color="6" icon="0182.png"]

My History explores recent DNA revelations concerning Black Sovereign's genetic past.

Black Sovereign's DNA Test Results

[one_third]

AFRICA (86%)

• Nigeria - 57%


• Mali - 17%


• Southeastern Bantu - 3%


• Senegal - 3%


• South-Central Hunter-Gatherers - 3%


• Cameroon - 1%


• Benin - less than 1%


• Ghana - less than 1%

[/one_third][one_third]

EUROPE (13%)

• Britain - 6%


• Europe West - 5%


• Italy - less than 1%


• Iberian Peninsula - less than 1%

[/one_third][one_third_last]

PACIFIC ISLANDER (< 1%)

• Melanesia - less than 1%

[/one_third_last]

[/infopane]

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Great Britain

Primarily located in: England, Scotland, Wales

Also found in: Ireland, France, Germany, Denmark, Belgium, Netherlands, Switzerland, Austria, Italy

The people of the Great Britain region have been witness to sweeping political changes and amazing technological progress through the centuries, from the Glorious Revolution to the Industrial Revolution. But despite their penchant for reform and progress, they have always found a way to preserve the past. From royal families to prime ministers, ancient languages to international diversity, from venerable cathedrals to glass skyscrapers, their culture is a fascinating blend of old and new.

How Black Sovereign compares to the typical person native to the Great Britain region

[infopane color="1" icon="0101.png"]Black Sovereign : 6% ... ... ... Typical native : 60%[/infopane]

 

Genetic Diversity in the Great Britain Region

The people living in the Great Britain region today are more admixed than most other regions, which means that when creating genetic ethnicity estimates for people native to this area, we often see similarities to DNA profiles from other nearby regions. We’ve found that approximately 60% of the typical native’s DNA comes from this region.

We have used our reference panel to build a genetic profile for Great Britain. The blue chart above shows examples of ethnicity estimates for people native to this region. For Great Britain we see an extremely wide range—most natives have between 41% and 100% of their DNA showing similarity to this region. It’s also possible, however, to find people whose DNA shows very little similarity. Since approximately 60% of the typical native’s DNA comes from this region, 40% is more similar to other regions, such as Ireland, Europe West, Scandinavia and the Iberian Peninsula (see chart above, in green).

Population History

Prehistoric Britain

At the end of the Last Glacial Maximum, 12,000 years ago, the sea levels around northern Europe were low enough for Stone Age hunter-gatherers to cross, on foot, into what are now the islands of Great Britain. Farming spread to the islands by about 4000 B.C., and the Neolithic inhabitants erected their remarkable and puzzling stone monuments, including the famed Stonehenge.

Beginning in about 2500 B.C., successive waves of Celtic tribes settled in the region. The Celts were not a nation in any sense, but a widespread group of tribes that shared a common cultural and linguistic background. Originating in central Europe, the Celts spread to dominate most of western Europe, the British Isles and the Iberian Peninsula. They even settled as far away as Anatolia, in modern-day Turkey. Their dominance could not withstand the rise of the Roman Empire, however.

After defeating the Celts of Gaul (modern-day France, Luxembourg, Belgium and western areas of Germany and Switzerland), the Romans invaded the British Isles in 43 A.D. Most of southern Britain was conquered and occupied over the course of a few decades and became the Roman province of Britannia. Hadrian’s Wall, in the north of England, marked the approximate extent of Roman control. Those Celts who were not assimilated into the Roman Empire were forced to retreat to other areas that remained Celtic, such as Wales, Ireland, Scotland, the Isle of Man and Brittany. The Roman presence largely wiped out most traces of Celtic culture in England—even replacing the language with Latin.

The extent of Roman "Britannia" shortly before the Roman withdrawal

Germanic tribes invade

With the decline of its Western Empire, Rome largely withdrew from Britannia in 410 A.D. As the Romans left, tribes from northern Germany and Denmark seized the opportunity to step in. The Germanic Angles and Saxons soon controlled much of the territory that had been under Roman rule, while the Jutes from Denmark occupied some smaller areas in the south. The new settlers imposed their language and customs on the local inhabitants in much the same way that the Romans had. The Germanic language spoken by the Angles would eventually develop into English.

Invasion of Germanic tribes after 410 A.D.

Jutes

Angles

Saxons

The region was divided into several kingdoms, with the more powerful kings sometimes exerting influence or control over smaller neighboring kingdoms. There was nothing like a single, unified English kingdom, however, until the early 10th century and the rise of the House of Wessex.

Viking invasions and the Danelaw

During the 8th century, seafaring Scandinavian adventurers began raiding coastal areas in Europe. Known as the Vikings, they were not just warriors and pillagers. They also established numerous trade ports and settlements throughout the Western world, including the British Isles, Russia, Iceland and the Iberian Peninsula. A group of Vikings that settled in northern France became known as the Normans and, by the early 11th century, ruled a great and powerful region, sanctioned by the French crown.

Viking longships

Danish Vikings began to invade northern and eastern England in 876 and eventually came to control a third of the country, defeating several smaller Anglo-Saxon kingdoms. The rulers of the Danelaw, as the Viking area became known, struggled for nearly 80 years with the remaining English kings over the region. The balance of power swung back and forth a number of times, with an English king, Edward the Elder, gaining the upper hand in the early 900s and a Danish king, Cnut the Great, ruling England, Norway and Denmark from 1016 to 1035. After the deaths of Cnut’s sons, the throne returned to Anglo-Saxon control, but it was short-lived, as Edward the Confessor died without an heir. The Normans of France, led by William the Conqueror, sailed across the English Channel and claimed the throne of England, defeating the only other rival, Harold Godwinson, at the Battle of Hastings in 1066. In 1067, William extended his control to Scotland and Wales.

The Danelaw in 878 A.D.

The Battle of Hastings

Consolidation of royal authority

The Norman kings, ruling primarily from France, gave rise to the House of Plantagenet, a line of kings that began to consolidate and modernize the kingdom of England. Beginning in 1277, Edward I put down a revolt in Wales and led a full-scale invasion, bringing Wales under control of the English crown. He then seized political control of Scotland during a succession dispute, leading to a rebellion there. Edward’s campaign against the Scots wasn’t entirely successful and remained unresolved at his death. By decisively defeating Edward’s son at Bannockburn in 1314, the Scots assured their independence.

The British Empire

After the defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588, England established itself as a major naval power. As European nations began founding colonies around the world, England was well positioned to compete for control of the largely untapped resources of the New World. Religious and political upheavals in England in the 17th and 18th centuries played critical roles in establishing and defining early American history, as dissidents left England seeking religious freedom. Called the Great Migration, it was not large in numbers, but it laid the foundation for many American ideals, including religious tolerance and the separation of church and state. Subsequent emigrations from England to the Americas ensured a primarily English-derived culture and social structure.

English ships and the Spanish Armada, 1588

In addition to the American colonies, the British Empire included, at various times, islands in the Caribbean, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, India, most of eastern Africa and parts of the Middle East. It was said that the sun never set on the British Empire, since it stretched around the world.

Did You Know?

The legend of King Arthur is probably more fiction than fact, but many believe there is at least a kernel of truth to the tales. Arthur may have been a British king who fought invading Saxons in the 5th century. Geoffrey of Monmouth, writing in 1136, added the wizard Merlin and the sword Excalibur to the legends about King Arthur.

My History | Ghana Ancestry

[infopane color="6" icon="0182.png"]

My History explores recent DNA revelations concerning Black Sovereign's genetic past.

Black Sovereign's DNA Test Results

[one_third]

AFRICA (86%)

• Nigeria - 57%


• Mali - 17%


• Southeastern Bantu - 3%


• Senegal - 3%


• South-Central Hunter-Gatherers - 3%


• Cameroon - 1%


• Benin - less than 1%


• Ghana - less than 1%

[/one_third][one_third]

EUROPE (13%)

• Britain - 6%


• Europe West - 5%


• Italy - less than 1%


• Iberian Peninsula - less than 1%

[/one_third][one_third_last]

PACIFIC ISLANDER (< 1%)

• Melanesia - less than 1%

[/one_third_last]

[/infopane]

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Ivory Coast/Ghana

Primarily located in: Ivory Coast, Ghana

Also found in: Benin, Togo, Mali, Nigeria, Senegal

Early French and Portuguese explorers identified sections of the West African coast by the area’s resources, which is how Côte d'Ivoire, or Ivory Coast, got its name. Neighboring Ghana was known as the Gold Coast until it won independence from colonial rule in 1957 and renamed itself after a medieval West African empire. Today, more than 46 million people live in the two countries, which depend less on gold and ivory than they do chocolate: Ivory Coast and Ghana produce more than half of the world’s cocoa.

How Black Sovereign compares to the typical person native to the Ivory Coast/Ghana region

[infopane color="1" icon="0101.png"]Black Sovereign : <1% ... ... ... Typical native : 86%[/infopane]

 

Genetic Diversity in the Ivory Coast/Ghana Region

People living in the Ivory Coast/Ghana region are only somewhat admixed, which means that when creating genetic ethnicity estimates for people native to this area, we sometimes see similarities to DNA profiles from other nearby regions. We’ve found that approximately 86% of the typical Ivory Coast/Ghana native’s DNA comes from this region.

We have used our reference panel to build a genetic profile for the Ivory Coast/Ghana region. The blue chart above shows examples of ethnicity estimates for people native to the area. For most natives, between 86% and 100% of their DNA looks similar to this profile. However, others have as little as 59%, or even none, of their DNA coming from this region. The other regions most commonly found are the neighboring Benin/Togo, Mali and Nigeria regions. About 43% of people from the Ivory Coast/Ghana region have at least some DNA from Benin/Togo. (See the green chart above.)

Population History

There is evidence of human activity in the area of modern-day Ivory Coast and Ghana going back millennia. Some groups, such as the Akan, trace their history in the region to at least the 11th century. Historians believe that most current populations were in place by the 16th century after absorbing or displacing previous inhabitants. Ghana and Ivory Coast are each home to more than 60 different ethnic groups today.

Geography played an influential role on the populations of Ghana and Ivory Coast. In both countries, the terrain ranges from savanna in the north to forest in the south. The dense forests acted as partial barriers to trade, migration and forming large, centralized societies like those that appeared farther north, where vast empires rose and fell for more than a millennium. The north-south divide is also evident in religion: Islam came to West Africa with the trans-Saharan trade and is more prevalent in the north; Christianity, introduced by Europeans, gained a foothold in the south.

A woman walks through dense forests in central Ghana

Migrations into Ivory Coast and Ghana

Modern Ivory Coast and Ghana lie on the periphery of the great empires of Mali (ca. 1230–1550) and Songhai (ca. 1375–1591), and the region’s population felt their influence. As empires rose and fell, people pushed into new lands or fled old ones. Dyula (or Juula) traders, a merchant class of Mandé people from Mali, made their way south, introducing goods, inhabitants and Islam to the northern edges of modern-day Ghana. They later established the Kong Empire (1710–1898) in northeastern Ivory Coast. Other Mandé groups settled in western Ivory Coast, where they make up almost 25% of the population today.

According to their own oral tradition, the Dagomba people came from the area northeast of Lake Chad, finally settling in northern Ghana. The Senufo came south from Mali into Ivory Coast in about the 15th century. The Ewe people migrated from the east, from the areas now making up Togo and Benin.

The most significant migration for Ghana and Ivory Coast, however, began with the arrival of the Akan people. The Akan had established the state of Bonoman—a center of trade for gold, salt, kola nuts, ivory and leather—in western Ghana/eastern Ivory Coast. From Bonoman, they spread out looking for gold.

The Akan people

With a population of 20 million, the Akan represent the largest ethnic group in Ghana and Ivory Coast. The Akan are a matrilineal society believed to have originated in the Sahel region and who then traveled south into Ghana and Ivory Coast.

The Ashanti, a subgroup of the Akan, formed a number of states in Ghana built around trade and gold. They traded with the Songhai and Hausa along traditional inland routes and also with European partners, starting with the Portuguese, who arrived on the coast in 1482. New crops, such as maize and cassava, and slave labor allowed them to push farther into the forests, clearing land to farm and mining gold. In fact, before the transatlantic slave trade began in earnest, the Ashanti bought slaves from the Portuguese.

The Ashanti Empire was established in 1701 by Osei Tutu, who began unifying Ashanti states around the city of Kumasi. The Ashanti continued to expand, through diplomacy and military conquest, building one of the most advanced and powerful empires in sub-Saharan Africa. Not all Akan people wanted part in the empire, and some fled west into modern-day Ivory Coast. These included the Abron, the Baoulé and the Agni. In the 19th century, the Ashanti fought a series of wars with British troops, as England tried to firm up its hold over Ghana. Eventually, the Ashanti kingdom, known as Asanteman, became a British protectorate in 1902 and today is a state within modern Ghana.

Defeat of the Ashantis by British forces, July 11, 1824

French sovereignty over Ivory Coast was recognized by the British in 1889, and the country became a French colony in 1893. Ivory Coast continued to attract new immigrants in the 20th century when two decades of prosperity and relative peace followed independence in 1960.

Note that genetic ethnicity estimates are based on individuals living in this region today. While a prediction of genetic ethnicity from this region suggests a connection to the groups occupying this location, it is not conclusive evidence of membership to any particular tribe or ethnic group.

Did You Know?

The Ashanti had their own telegraph long before American inventor Samuel Morse patented his (in 1847). The Ashanti people sent messages through the forest via drum. The tones of their famous “talking drums” mimic their own tonal language.

Ashanti drummer with talking drums

My History | Benin - Togo Ancestry

[infopane color="6" icon="0182.png"] My History explores recent DNA revelations concerning Black Sovereign's genetic past.

Black Sovereign's DNA Test Results

[one_third] AFRICA (86%)

• Nigeria - 57%


• Mali - 17%


• Southeastern Bantu - 3%


• Senegal - 3%


• South-Central Hunter-Gatherers - 3%


• Cameroon - 1%


• Benin - less than 1%


• Ghana - less than 1%

[/one_third][one_third] EUROPE (13%)

• Britain - 6%


• Europe West - 5%


• Italy - less than 1%


• Iberian Peninsula - less than 1%

[/one_third][one_third_last] PACIFIC ISLANDER (< 1%)

• Melanesia - less than 1%

[/one_third_last] [/infopane]

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Benin/Togo

Primarily located in: Benin, Togo

Also found in: Ghana, Nigeria, Mali

For years, anthropologists and others looked at African ethnic groups as being mostly solitary and static. However, historians now know that huge empires and kingdoms, with administrations and armies, diplomatic corps and distant trading partners, have long been part of Africa’s fabric. This is especially true of West Africa, where migrations, conquests and intermarriage within allied kingdoms help explain why, for example, 43% of people from the Benin/Togo region have DNA that looks similar to the profile for the Ivory Coast/Ghana region, and 28% similar to the profile for Nigeria.

How Black Sovereign compares to the typical person native to the Benin/Togo region

[infopane color="1" icon="0101.png"]Black Sovereign : <1% ... ... ... Typical native : 82%[/infopane]

 

Genetic Diversity in the Benin/Togo Region

The people living in the Benin/Togo region are admixed, which means that when creating genetic ethnicity estimates for people native to this area, we sometimes see similarities to DNA profiles from other regions. We’ve found that approximately 82% of the typical Benin/Togo native’s DNA comes from this region.

We have used our reference panel to build a genetic profile for Benin/Togo. The blue chart above shows examples of ethnicity estimates for people native to this region. For Benin/Togo we see a fairly wide range: for some natives, as little as 28% of their DNA comes from the region, while for others, 100% looks similar to the profile. For Benin/Togo natives with DNA from neighboring regions, we most commonly see the Ivory Coast/Ghana region. About 43% of Benin/Togo natives have DNA from Ivory Coast/Ghana, while another 28% have DNA similar to the profile for Nigeria. (See the green chart above.)

Population History

Benin sits just west of Nigeria, and west of Benin is Togo. Benin has a population of 9.88 million that is growing at an annual rate of 2.84%. Togo is only slightly behind with a growth rate of 2.73% and 7.15 million people. Both countries’ populations are largely rural, but more densely concentrated along the coast. Though tied closely together by history, geography and religion, the inhabitants of Benin and Togo are ethnically quite different.

Women paddling a boat near Ganvie, Benin

Benin’s largest ethnic group is the Fon (39%), followed by the Adja (15%), Yoruba (12%) and Bariba (9%). Togo’s largest ethnic groups are the Ewe (21%), Kabye (12%), Mina (3.2%) and Kotokoli (3.2%). Benin has more ethnic ties to its neighbor Nigeria; Togo has more links to Ghana. These ethnic ties are the result of long-standing kingdoms that flourished before European colonists created new borders.

Considering their small size, both countries have great ethnic diversity, especially in the north. Some populations there are related to ethnic groups farther north in Burkina Faso, and the small but influential Hausa population is largely responsible for bringing Islam to Togo. In the south of Benin, the Fon people are dominant. They are descendants from the powerful African kingdom of Dahomey that ruled the region from about 1600 to 1900.

Most northern Beninese and Togolese practice herding, fishing and subsistence farming. Trade is limited in the north, where neither country has much in the way of navigable waterways or viable roads. In the more urbanized south, however, people have greater social and physical mobility. Most urban Africans in the Benin/Togo region work at a trade or sell goods at local markets. In the past, the proximity to the coast spawned trade relationships with Europeans, other Africans and with slave traders. The countries on the Bight of Benin were part of the so-called “Slave Coast” and in the late 1600s became the top suppliers of slaves to the New World. As a result, the genetic footprint of the Benin/Togo region can be found across much of the Western Hemisphere.

Dahomey

Many people in Togo and Benin speak one of about 20 related Gbe languages. Linguistic evidence indicates that most of the Gbe people came from the east in several migrations between the 10th and 15th centuries. The Gbe were pushed westward during a series of wars with the Yoruba people of Nigeria, then settled in Tado on the Mono River (in present-day Togo).

Around 1600, Fon emigrants from Tado established the Kingdom of Dahomey, a Fon monarchy that ruled Benin for some 300 years. Its standing army, an aggressive economic model that relied on slavery for export and labor, and its “Amazon” warriors (elite troops of fierce, female combat soldiers) made the Kingdom of Dahomey a powerful regional threat. It was also the top trading partner with the Europeans. Other contemporary kingdoms in Benin included Porto-Novo, as well as smaller northern states. In Togo, the Kabye and Lamba (or Lama) peoples migrated to the north between 600 and 1200 A.D. Many other groups who settled in Togo were refugees of wars in Dahomey and what is now Ghana.

Gezo, King of Dahomey. Image from Dahomey and the Dahomans, by Frederick E. Forbes, NYPL

Slave trade

European slave traders first became a force on the coast of West Africa. By 1475 Portuguese traders had reached the Bight of Benin, and by the mid-1500s Spain and England had also legalized the slave trade. As the demand for slaves grew, the Kingdom of Dahomey (and others in the region) provided European traders with a constant supply in exchange for goods and firearms. Dahomey, which had long paid tribute to the Yoruba Empire of Oyo, used its new weapons and power to throw off that yoke.

More than 2 million slaves were sent from the Bight of Benin to the New World, and among them were many from Benin and Togo’s major ethnic groups. The Adja, Mina, Ewe and Fon groups of this region were the third-most enslaved groups sent to the New World. A great number of these went to Haiti and Brazil, where they established their traditional religious practices and ancestor worship, better known today as Voodoo, Santería or Macumba.

Colonization

With the end of slavery, the Kingdom of Dahomey lost its revenue source and began an economic decline. The French defeated Dahomey in a series of wars between 1890 and 1894, and eventually, both Benin and Togo (minus an area under British control) became part of French West Africa. One result of the French colonial period was that, in many cases, French West Africans had certain citizenship or other rights under French law; over time, African communities sprang up in France and other parts of Europe. In 1960, both Benin and Togo declared independence.

Combat de Dogba, 19 Septembre, 1892, by Alexandre d'Albéca, depicting a battle during the Second War of Dahomey.

 

Note that genetic ethnicity estimates are based on individuals living in this region today. While a prediction of genetic ethnicity from this region suggests a connection to the groups occupying this location, it is not conclusive evidence of membership to any particular tribe or ethnic group.

Did You Know?

Benin’s village of Ganvie stands on stilts in the middle of Lake Nokoué. Tradition says the village was built on the lake to protect the Tofinu people from slave traders because Fon warriors, who captured slaves for Portuguese traders, were not allowed to fight on water.

Ganvie, Benin

My History | Cameroon Ancestry

[infopane color="6" icon="0182.png"] My History explores recent DNA revelations concerning Black Sovereign's genetic past.

Black Sovereign's DNA Test Results

[one_third] AFRICA (86%)

• Nigeria - 57%


• Mali - 17%


• Southeastern Bantu - 3%


• Senegal - 3%


• South-Central Hunter-Gatherers - 3%


• Cameroon - 1%


• Benin - less than 1%


• Ghana - less than 1%

[/one_third][one_third] EUROPE (13%)

• Britain - 6%


• Europe West - 5%


• Italy - less than 1%


• Iberian Peninsula - less than 1%

[/one_third][one_third_last] PACIFIC ISLANDER (< 1%)

• Melanesia - less than 1%

[/one_third_last] [/infopane]

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Cameroon/Congo

Primarily located in: Cameroon, Gabon, Congo, Republic of Congo

Also found in: Angola, Chad

Because they lie near or on the equator, these nations typically include tropical rainforest and humid savanna. While the Congo takes its name from the old African kingdom of Kongo, Cameroon gets its name from the first Europeans to arrive in the area in 1472. Portuguese sailors found crayfish in the Wouri River and started calling the land the Rio dos Camarões, or River of Shrimp. Eventually, the word Camarões became Cameroon.

How Black Sovereign compares to the typical person native to the Cameroon/Congo region

[infopane color="1" icon="0101.png"]Black Sovereign : 1% ... ... ... Typical native : 92%[/infopane]

 

Genetic Diversity in the Cameroon/Congo Region

People living in the Cameroon/Congo region today are less admixed than people in most other regions, which means that when creating genetic ethnicity estimates for natives to this area, we sometimes see small similarities to DNA profiles from other nearby regions. We’ve found that approximately 92% of the typical Cameroon/Congo native’s DNA comes from this region.

Examples of people native to the Cameroon/Congo region

 

We’ve used our reference panel to build a genetic profile for the Cameroon/Congo region. The blue chart above shows examples of ethnicity estimates for people native to the region. For Cameroon/Congo we see a fairly narrow range: for most people native to the area, between 83% and 100% of their DNA looks similar to the profile. However, we also found people with as little as 45% of their DNA coming from the region. The other regions most commonly found are the neighboring Nigeria and Africa Southeastern Bantu regions. About 21% of people from the Cameroon/Congo region have at least some DNA from these regions. (See green chart above.)

Population History

The Congo River Basin has been home to human populations for at least 30,000 years. The first settlers in Cameroon were probably the Baka, groups of Pygmy hunter-gatherers who still inhabit the forests of the south and east, as well as neighboring Gabon and the two Congos. This small group (some 40,000) is actually more closely related to groups found in the deserts of the Africa South-Central Hunter-Gatherers region.

Two Baka men in the dense forests of Cameroon

Baka Pygmy collecting honey in the rainforest, Cameroon

In north-central Cameroon, a high range of rugged mountains stretches across the country from west to east. To the far south and east, in the vast Congo River Basin, the environment consists of dense rainforest and wide waterways. These features have created a degree of isolation and served as a barrier to frequent or large-scale migrations or conquests.

Although the Cameroon/Congo region is incredibly diverse, with more than 200 different ethnic groups, our genetic profile for the region is primarily represented by samples from the Cameroon Grasslands, where the largest populations are subgroups of the Bamileke and Bamum peoples. These tribes’ origins are not known, but it appears that in the 17th century, they moved south into Cameroon in a series of migrations to avoid enslavement—and, in some cases, forced conversion to Islam—by the Fulani peoples. Cameroon’s west and northwest provinces are the country’s most densely populated regions. The populous Bamileke tend to be Christian and live in small fons, or chiefdoms, in highly organized villages led by local chiefs. The less populous Bamum tend to be Muslim and have a more centralized social structure under a high king.

Bamileke dancers in Batié, West Province, Cameroon. Photo by Anya Lothrop.

Besides the Grasslands tribes, a smaller number of people live in the southern and central regions of Cameroon and in Congo-Brazzaville (Republic of Congo) and Congo-Kinshasa (Democratic Republic of Congo). However, many of the ethnic groups found in the two Congos are of Bantu origin—meaning they share a common ancestral language and an ancestral homeland on the western border of modern Cameroon and Nigeria. The Bantu peoples began migrating from Cameroon in about 1000 B.C. Some went east across Africa and then south; some settled the Congo River Basin; and some went south along the coast to Angola. These Bantu groups have a genetic ethnicity better represented by the Southeastern Bantu region profile.

Bantu Cradle

The slave trade

The international slave trade in this region began with the Portuguese on Cameroon’s west coast, though it became the practice of many European countries. The threat of malaria prevented any significant settlement or conquest of the interior prior to the 1870s—when an effective malaria drug (quinine) became available. So the Europeans initially focused on coastal trade and acquiring slaves. Most slaves were captured by African middlemen from the interior and taken to port cities to be sold, and the flow of human traffic from many ethnic groups was constant. Around 1.5 million slaves left Africa from this region of Cameroon; combined, nearly half of all slaves destined to work in the Western Hemisphere came from Cameroon and the Congo River Basin. Many slaves from the coastal regions of Cameroon and Equatorial Guinea ended up in Maryland, Virginia and South Carolina.

Slaves being transported, 19th-century engraving

The 19th and 20th centuries

Cameroon escaped colonial rule until 1884, when treaties with tribal chiefs brought the area under German domination. After World War I, the League of Nations gave the French a mandate over 80% of the area and the British control of the remaining 20% (the area adjacent to Nigeria). After World War II the country came under a United Nations trusteeship and self-government was granted. Independence was achieved in 1960 for French Cameroon and in 1961 for British Cameroon.

Note that genetic ethnicity estimates are based on individuals living in this region today. While a prediction of genetic ethnicity from this region suggests a connection to the groups occupying this location, it is not conclusive evidence of membership to any particular tribe or ethnic group.

Did You Know?

DNA indicates that John Punch, the first African man documented to have been enslaved for life in the early American Colonies, likely came from the Cameroon region.

My History | SC Hunter Gatherers Ancestry

[infopane color="6" icon="0182.png"] My History explores recent DNA revelations concerning Black Sovereign's genetic past.

Black Sovereign's DNA Test Results

[one_third] AFRICA (86%)

• Nigeria - 57%


• Mali - 17%


• Southeastern Bantu - 3%


• Senegal - 3%


• South-Central Hunter-Gatherers - 3%


• Cameroon - 1%


• Benin - less than 1%


• Ghana - less than 1%

[/one_third][one_third] EUROPE (13%)

• Britain - 6%


• Europe West - 5%


• Italy - less than 1%


• Iberian Peninsula - less than 1%

[/one_third][one_third_last] PACIFIC ISLANDER (< 1%)

• Melanesia - less than 1%

[/one_third_last] [/infopane]

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Africa South-Central Hunter-Gatherers

Primarily located in: South Africa, Namibia, Botswana, Congo

Also found in: Angola, Zambia, Tanzania, Kenya

The Africa South-Central Hunter-Gatherers region is made up of ancient hunter-gatherer and pastoral groups who, though small in number and physical height, are considered the wellspring of human populations around the world. Increasingly, southern African Khoe-San groups and Central Africa’s Mbuti and Baka (Pygmy) groups are drawing the attention of scholars and researchers for their genetic diversity, ancient origins and unique cultural traditions.

How Black Sovereign compares to the typical person native to the Africa South-Central Hunter-Gatherers region

[infopane color="1" icon="0101.png"]Black Sovereign : 3% ... ... ... Typical native : 86%[/infopane]

 

Genetic Diversity in the Africa South-Central Hunter-Gatherers Region

Individuals from the Africa South-Central Hunter-Gatherers region are admixed, which means that when creating genetic ethnicity estimates for people native to this area, we frequently see similarities to DNA profiles from other nearby regions. We’ve found that approximately 86% of the typical South-Central Hunter-Gatherer’s DNA comes from this region.

Examples of people native to the Africa South-Central Hunter-Gatherers region

 

We have used our reference panel to build a genetic profile for the Africa South-Central Hunter-Gatherers region. The blue chart above shows examples of ethnicity estimates for people native to this region. For this region we see a substantial range: for most natives to this area, between 74% and 100% of their DNA looks similar to the profile. However, for others, as little as 62% of their DNA comes from this region. The other region most commonly found is the neighboring Cameroon/Congo region. About 54% of people from the Africa South-Central Hunter-Gatherers region have at least some DNA from Cameroon/Congo. (See the green chart above.)

Population History

Geography as destiny

The Africa South-Central Hunter-Gatherers region includes much of southern Africa (Namibia, Botswana and South Africa) and the heart of Central Africa (the Democratic Republic of the Congo, or Congo-Kinshasa). Individuals with this genetic ethnicity may also be found in Angola, Zambia, Tanzania and Kenya.

There are two geographic features important to understanding the peoples native to this region. First is the Kalahari Desert, the second-largest desert in the world, which spans a large part of five countries. Despite having no water source beyond seasonal rainfall, the Kalahari is home to a rich variety of plants and animals that have made life possible for the Khoe-San peoples spread across it. The second important feature is the Congo River Basin; the river drainage and massive rainforests provide a home to the Baka and Mbuti and other Pygmy groups.

Life in the Kalahari Desert and Congo forests was fraught with risks and dangers that could only be overcome by cooperation. Harmony in the group was the highest cultural goal for people native to these regions.

Kalahari Desert in Namibia

Village Ndobo on the shoreline of the Congo River

The Khoe-San

The southern portion of this region has been home to the nomadic Khoe-San peoples for thousands of years. The pastoral Khoe, or Khoi (“the people”), rely on herds of livestock for sustenance. The San people, often referred to as “Bushmen,” are hunter-gatherers who forage for plants, insects, roots, game and water. Both groups comprise many smaller groups and clans. Though distinct culturally and linguistically, the Khoe and San have a common genetic origin. The fact that the Khoe-San have among the highest levels of genetic diversity in the world has led researchers to believe that the Khoe-San are one of the world’s most ancient human populations.

A San tribesman in Namibia. Photo by Ian Beatty.

Though the Khoe tend to have hierarchical cultures based on livestock wealth, the San have no hierarchy, share all things and make all decisions by consensus, even if reaching agreement takes a long time. Both cultures are oral in nature—they have no written language—but have distinctive art forms and language. The Khoisan languages are known for their distinctive clicks; however, their languages are unrelated to nearby Bantu languages such as Zulu and Xhosa, which have adopted some Khoisan click consonants.

Because the Khoe-San groups have no written language, their history is based on archaeological findings, oral tradition and DNA studies. The great Bantu migrations from eastern Africa brought successful ironworking, animal husbandry and farming to southern Africa, creating fast-growing populations that displaced the Khoe-San peoples. From the 16th through the 18th centuries, Bantu groups pushed the Khoe-San farther south and west toward modern-day Botswana and South Africa, while Dutch and French settlers of the Cape region pressured Khoe groups to move farther north. Although they had been spread thinly across southern Africa for thousands of years, the Khoe-San population ultimately concentrated in the arid Kalahari and areas they occupy today.

The Baka and Mbuti

The rainforests of the Congo River Basin, especially those of the north and east, are home to Pygmy groups such as the Baka and Mbuti. They live in small, nomadic groups, eating fish, bushmeat and foraged fruits and plants. The Baka and Mbuti groups are also communal, egalitarian and make decisions by consensus.

Of the early history of the Baka and Mbuti and other Pygmy groups, even less is known than about the Khoe-San people’s history. The tropical rainforests tend to swallow up their artifacts and habitations, which are made of natural materials that decompose quickly. Archaeological evidence indicates that human populations have lived in the Congo River Basin for some 30,000 years. Genetic evidence points to all Pygmy populations coming from a common ancestral group about 3,000 years ago.

Portrait of a Baka man, 1879. Photo by Richard Buchta. Courtesy of Pitt Rivers Museum in southern Sudan.

Colonial and modern eras

Because of their small populations, isolation, nomadic lifestyle and the largely inaccessible and inhospitable areas they lived in, the Khoe-San and Baka and Mbuti people were less afflicted by the slave trade than other African populations. The Colonial Era, however, had numerous long-range effects. As the newcomers came into contact with the native peoples, they altered migration patterns, introduced Christianity, made certain lands off-limits and changed the hierarchies and relationships among tribes and clans. Ultimately, the nations that were formed in the aftermath of colonization continued to disenfranchise nomadic peoples, using their traditional lands for resources such as diamonds, gold, platinum and strategic minerals.

Note that genetic ethnicity estimates are based on individuals living in this region today. While a prediction of genetic ethnicity from this region suggests a connection to the groups occupying this location, it is not conclusive evidence of membership to any particular tribe or ethnic group.

Did You Know?

Many consider the San to be the best trackers in the world. In fact, scientists have recently recruited San trackers to help decipher prehistoric human footprints that have been preserved in caves.

A San hunter in the Kalahari Desert